While the United Nations has adopted the term «Islamophobia» to describe racism based on religious affiliation with Islam, the label is often rejected in France, where Interior Minister Bruno Retailleau views it as carrying Islamist or even Muslim Brotherhood connotations. Yet the term's origins date back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, rooted more in ethnology than in political ideology. In recent months, political and media debates in France have intensified around the term «Islamophobia». While the United Nations has adopted the term to describe racism based on religious affiliation with Islam, France remains divided on its use. Interior Minister Bruno Retailleau has repeatedly expressed his reservations, arguing that the term carries ideological undertones and overlooks the influence of the Muslim Brotherhood and religious entryism. Some voices, including those cited by France Culture on Monday, trace its connotation to the Iranian Revolution of 1979. In the wake of the attack in La Grand-Combe on April 25, political leaders and civil society figures have denounced what they describe as a toxic, Islamophobic climate—though the French government prefers the term «anti-Muslim». On May 9, the murder was officially classified by the public prosecutor as «a homicide motivated by race or religion». In a May 3 interview with Le Journal du Dimanche, French Prime Minister François Bayrou made his position clear. Embracing the term «Islamophobia», he questioned the refusal to use what he called «the right words». «You can't fight what you refuse to name», he said. «Refusing a word because it forces you to face reality is something I've seen often in politics. Here, the facts are undeniable: a 22-year-old man murdered while praying in a mosque. His killer filmed the act and shouted insults against Allah. If this isn't hatred toward Islam, then what is?» he asked. A Divisive Term in the French Assembly While some see the term as ideologically loaded, others view it as essential to naming and combating a specific form of discrimination. According to France Culture, the word «Islamophobia» predates modern political Islam. It was initially used to describe prejudice and discrimination against Muslims—or those perceived as such. Over time, especially in activist circles, it was reappropriated to highlight overlooked dimensions of systemic discrimination. Sociologists Abdellali Hajjat and Marwan Mohammed, in their book Islamophobia: How French Elites Create the Muslim Problem (La Découverte), argue that the term refers not only to discriminatory acts, but also to a broader social phenomenon that reduces individuals to their presumed or actual religious identity. Islamophobia, they write, is «an ideology grounded in prejudice and systemic discrimination that goes beyond racism and is rooted in the notion of a 'Muslim problem'». They distinguish between various intersecting logics—anti-religious sentiment, sexism, and class-based racism—which, they argue, often converge on the «essentialization of Muslims». Following the 9/11 attacks, geopolitical shifts gave rise to what they call a distorted «Islam-Islamism-terrorism continuum», fueling Islamophobic narratives. In the Anglo-Saxon world, the term gained traction in the 1990s, particularly in the UK. Over time, critics warned that using «Islamophobia» could suppress legitimate criticism of religion and infringe on free speech. In France, sociologists argue, this suspicion has become mainstream—without much real debate. In a 2020 interview with Yabiladi, Marwan Mohammed criticized the narrowing of public discourse around Islamophobia in France. «We are witnessing the criminalization of political anti-racism, especially when it points to the responsibility of public institutions. This shift lacks any serious data or study», he said. Islamophobia Before Political Islam The term «Islamophobia» did not originate with modern Islamist movements. Some scholars trace its roots to the late 19th and early 20th centuries. One early reference is found in Alain Quellien's 1910 work Muslim Policy in French West Africa, where he described Islamophobia as «a prejudice against Islam prevalent among peoples of Western and Christian civilization». In a 2015 chapter for the Trajectories and Origins survey published by INED, researchers Patrick Simon and Vincent Tiberj explored how debates over Islam in France have shaped public perceptions of Muslims. Drawing on the work of Hajjat and Mohammed, they highlighted how increasing politicization over the past two decades has affected both the visibility of Islam and the conditions of its reception in French society. «The tightening of the secular framework has had consequences for all religions», they wrote, «but especially for Islam, which has become central to public debate. The negative perception of Islam, and the restrictions placed on visible religious expression, have likely reinforced the sense of Muslim identity and elevated it beyond its spiritual or traditional dimensions». An International Perspective Since 2022, the United Nations has officially recognized March 15 as the International Day to Combat Islamophobia. The UN defines the term as «fear, prejudice, and hatred towards Muslims», often arising from «institutional, ideological, political, and religious hostility», which can evolve into structural or cultural racism targeting Muslims and Islamic symbols. On the 2025 commemoration of this day, UN Secretary-General António Guterres warned of rising sectarianism and intolerance worldwide. In his message, he described Islamophobia as part of a broader wave of extremism and hate, noting a surge in attacks on religious groups and vulnerable communities.
