Sebastianism is a myth that emerged after the death of King Sebastian of Portugal in the 1578 Battle of Ksar El Kebir, fueled by the absence of his body and hopes of his return to save the nation. The belief, later politicized during Spanish rule and revived in 19th-century Brazil, came to symbolize unrealistic hope and denial of reality. It was August 4, 1578, and Morocco was about to witness one of the region's most legendary battles. King Sebastian of Portugal marched north with his army, accompanied by the deposed Saadi sultan, Abu Abdallah Mohammed II al-Mutawakkil. While the latter sought Portuguese support to reclaim the throne from his uncle, Abd al-Malik, King Sebastian saw the campaign as a chance to revive Portugal's past glories in North Africa. But the battle, fought near Ksar El Kebir, led to the death of the young king, the collapse of Portugal's long-standing independence, and the birth of an enduring national myth. Also known as the Battle of the Three Kings, the confrontation claimed the lives of al-Mutawakkil, his uncle Abd al-Malik I, and most likely Sebastian himself, who was either killed in combat or died later in captivity. No body, no crime Yet, the absence of Sebastian's body left room for doubt, sparking speculation, and, eventually, a deep-rooted refusal to accept his death. When news of the king's fall reached Portugal, many simply refused to believe it. This collective denial gave rise to what became known as Sebastianism. According to the myth, Sebastian never died in Morocco. Instead, he would one day return to save Portugal. These hopes were fueled by prophecies and popular lore. One of the most cited predictions came from the Trovas de Bandarra, a 16th-century collection of prophetic verses that foretold the rise of a savior emperor who would rescue Portugal from ruin. Sebastianism took on a political dimension in the 1580s, when Portugal was annexed by Spain. With Sebastian leaving no heir, the Spanish king Philip II—himself the grandson of Portugal's King João III—claimed the Portuguese throne. Many Portuguese who opposed Castilian rule found refuge in the belief that Sebastian would return from Morocco and restore national sovereignty. Sebastian shall return So strong was the myth that Philip II, now ruling Portugal as Philip I, feared its influence. In 1582, he ordered the transfer of what was believed to be Sebastian's body to the Jerónimos Monastery in Lisbon in an attempt to put an end to the myth. But the gesture failed. As one historian noted, «the plan did not work». Instead, Sebastianism only gained ground. In the late 16th century, at least four imposters emerged claiming to be the missing king. Among the most notorious was Marco Tulio Catizone, an Italian from Calabria, who was eventually exposed and hanged in 1603. In her essay From Military Defeat to Immortality: The Birth of Sebastianism, scholar Mary Elizabeth Brooks describes the phenomenon, especially in the years immediately following the battle, as «one of the most dramatic and startling examples of a nation's stubborn adherence to a belief, to a hope, in spite of facts, reason, and logic to the contrary». Even after Portugal regained independence from Spain in 1640 under King John IV, the myth lived on. So powerful was the belief that John IV reportedly pledged to step down should Sebastian ever return from the Moroccan battlefield. By that time, Sebastian would have been in his eighties. From Morocco to Brazil In the decades that followed, Sebastianism evolved from a political hope into a national myth. «After the early seventeenth century, when Sebastian's lifespan would naturally have ended», Brooks wrote, «sebastianismo lost its ties with reality». What remained, she argued, was a «ridiculous pseudo-religious cult» that even inspired literary works. The myth of Sebastian even crossed the Atlantic, finding fertile ground in 19th-century Brazil. There, some believed that the lost king would return, not to save Portugal, but to liberate Brazil from religious dogma and bring justice to the Republic. Today, calling someone a Sebastianist refers to someone unrealistically optimistic, someone waiting for a Sebastian who will never return. Someone who clings to the unbelievable.
